{"id":6649,"date":"2023-11-29T02:16:32","date_gmt":"2023-11-29T02:16:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/learningcommons.twu.ca\/?p=6649"},"modified":"2024-01-15T22:13:53","modified_gmt":"2024-01-15T22:13:53","slug":"speaking-of-they-colonised-two-spirit-bodies","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/2023\/11\/29\/speaking-of-they-colonised-two-spirit-bodies\/","title":{"rendered":"Speaking of They: Colonised Two-Spirit Bodies"},"content":{"rendered":"

400 Level Entry<\/em><\/p>\n

Speaking of They: Colonised Two-Spirit Bodies<\/strong><\/p>\n

\n
\n

reclamation!<\/span><\/i> 
\n<\/span><\/i>two-spirit hallucinations<\/span> 
\n<\/span>gender and sexual diversity across reservations<\/span> 
\n<\/span>consent and invitation<\/span> 
\n<\/span>self-love, respect and transformations<\/span> 
\n<\/span>dreams of colonial healing<\/span> 
\n<\/span>b<\/span>ringing back a flood of feelings<\/span> 
\n<\/span>cleansing, replenishing memories of believing<\/span> 
\n<\/span>refreshing, reviving ways of seeing<\/span> 
\n<\/span>decolonial sex, love and rock & roll<\/span> 
\n<\/span>light up that sage bowl<\/span> 
\n<\/span>let\u2019s lose control<\/span> 
\n<\/span>shapeshift our souls<\/span> 
\n<\/span>a dream for next<\/span> 
\n<\/span>generations a vision of<\/span> 
\n<\/span>liberation<\/span> 
\n<\/span>ancestors holler in<\/span> 
\n<\/span>exclamation two-spirit<\/span> <\/span>reclamation!<\/span> 
\n<\/span>with lands, bodies, spirits, minds<\/span> 
\n<\/span>aligned<\/span> 
\n<\/span>the struggles will be easier<\/span> 
\n<\/span>to survive<\/span> 
\n<\/span>no one left behind<\/span> 
\n<\/span>rise up, thrive (Bitty, 2017).<\/span>1<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Two-Spirit expression & understandings before colonization<\/b> <\/b><\/p>\n

             Two-Spirit peoples have always been here. Two-Spirit traditions have been passed on for<\/span> millennia in Indigenous nations. They have always existed. While the term Two-Spirit (2S) was<\/span> only coined in 1990 by Indigenous activist Albert McCleod, there have always been people<\/span> whose identity has aligned with the term. Two-Spirit individuals encompassed those with<\/span> gender variance, unique dress, specialized work roles, same-sex attractions, and special spiritual<\/span> identities.<\/span>2<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

             Before Two-Spirit people had ever been contacted or encountered by Europeans, they were<\/span> known by their functions, not their sexuality,<\/span>3 <\/span>as they fulfilled specific yet fluid roles in their<\/span> communities. They were judged not for how they look or who they had sex with, but on their<\/span> contribution and treatment of their community. Because 2S individuals were known to be <\/span>endowed with the gift of both a masculine spirit and a feminine spirit, these unique individuals<\/span> were hailed as divinely talented. Pre-contact, there existed complex gender systems that made<\/span> space for sexuality unencumbered by ideas of sin, flexibility for gender identities, and a pro-sex<\/span> outlook where the body and sexual activity were natural (neither immoral nor moral).<\/span> Two-Spirit folks have existed beyond the constraints of settler heteropatriarchy (the<\/span> socio-political system whereby mainly cisgender males and heterosexuals have authority over<\/span> cisgender females, gender identities, and over other sexual orientations) and homonormativity<\/span> (the belief that there is a specific way of being queer and that marginalized sexualities and<\/span> genders should conform to achieve greater acceptance of the dominant society). Sexual<\/span> diversity, gender-expansiveness, non-monogamy, cross-dressing, and homo-affective families<\/span> are not inventions of modernity\u2013\u2013they predate the global LGBTQ+ framework\u2019s<\/span> acknowledgement of sex and gender fluidity, same-sex practices, and non-binary identities.<\/span> Indigenous Peoples were getting married on Turtle Island (North America) to those of the same<\/span> gender long before Stonewall occurred.<\/span>4 <\/span>2S individuals were often beloved figures of their<\/span> communities, not merely \u201cdead-enders\u201d in their family line<\/span>5<\/span>: they were herbalists, negotiators,<\/span> healers, warriors, matchmakers, counsellors, and caretakers of orphans. Their communities<\/span> b<\/span>elieved that Two-Spirit individuals had received special supernatural access in the form of<\/span> visions and dreams<\/span>6<\/span>: because of this, they often occupied roles as shamans, healers, and<\/span> ceremonial leaders. They were important storytellers and knowledge-keepers who knew the<\/span> community\u2019s creation stories and traditions. One of the most well-known 2S individuals who<\/span> identified as female was We\u2019wha of New Mexico who lived from 1846 to 1896; she was known<\/span> as <\/span>lhaman <\/span><\/i>or \u201cmixed gender\u201d in the Zuni language.<\/span>7 <\/span>While Indigenous communities maintained<\/span> relatively fixed roles for men\/males and women\/females, \u201cthe egalitarian, inclusive and<\/span> adaptive nature of [their] cultures allowed for a wide variety of gender and sexuality<\/span> expressions among community members.\u201d<\/span>8 <\/span>Before colonization, inclusivity and acceptance<\/span> were Indigenous values through and through.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

First Contact & Settler Impressions of Two-Spirit folks<\/b> <\/b><\/p>\n

             When European settlers first encountered Two-Spirit peoples, their identities were tainted the<\/span> minute European explorers and missionaries set eyes on them. They were considered not as<\/span> the gifted negotiators, healers, and counsellors that they were in their communities, but almost<\/span> solely by their outward presentation and dress. By the nineteenth century, the term <\/span>berdache<\/span><\/i> (meaning \u201ckept boy\u201d) became the term to describe these peoples who did not fit the settlers\u2019<\/span> p<\/span>reconceived notions of sex and gender norms. Jesuits first used the offensive term when they<\/span> recorded their observations of men in women\u2019s clothing, work roles, and sexual roles.<\/span>9<\/span> Europeans found these peoples to be a strange phenomenon; they quickly deemed them as<\/span> deviant. The Europeans considered them to be homosexuals\u2013\u2013who should be assimilated and<\/span> Christianized to the standards of a foreign purity culture.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Post-contact & Methods of Colonization<\/b><\/p>\n

             The Indian Act of 1876 is not an historical relic: it profoundly affects the quality of life of 2S<\/span> p<\/span>eoples today and continues to oppress Indigenous peoples on a daily basis.<\/span>10 <\/span>The Indian Act<\/span> was a consolidation of other colonial legislation, comprising the Royal Proclamation of 1763,<\/span> <\/span>the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857, and the British North America Act of 1867. The Act<\/span> allowed the federal government to assume \u201ctotal guardianship over Indigenous peoples and<\/span> govern every aspect of Indigenous social, economic, political and cultural life\u201d<\/span>11<\/span>: this<\/span> legislation effectively removed the rights of Indigenous People to decide their own identities.<\/span> Even today, the Indian Act of 1876 is actively subordinating vastly distinct peoples into a<\/span> homogenising legal status; in doing this, the Act reproduces colonial heteropatriarchy,<\/span> heterosexism, and harmful gender dualisms by ensuring that procreation and heterosexuality<\/span> are the only unions represented and recognized by Canadian law for Indigenous Peoples.<\/span>12 <\/span>The<\/span> intent of the Act was and is to shatter traditional notions of open sexuality and multiple<\/span> genders through solidified political action. Because of the Indian Act, Indigenous people are<\/span> p<\/span>lagued with guilt and shame for not feeling and acting \u201cIndigenous enough\u201d: 2S folks often<\/span> b<\/span>ear this weight alone.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

             <\/strong>The impact of residential schools cannot be understated: 2S children were specifically targeted<\/span> b<\/span>y school administrators and grouped according to their biological sex, regardless of their<\/span> non-binary identities or their family and community roles. Residential school administrators<\/span> enforced expectations of dualistic gender norms through the gendered division of labour, harsh<\/span> p<\/span>unishment for deviation from acting \u201cunlike one\u2019s sex,\u201d and the forced transformation of their<\/span> appearance and dress.<\/span>13 <\/span>Christian teachers and administrators at residential schools sexually<\/span> abused and assaulted Indigenous children. Many survivors began to \u201cunderstandably equate<\/span> homosexuality and nonbinary gender with the abuse they endured.\u201d<\/span>14 <\/span>These attitudes and<\/span> traumas were then brought back to their communities and 2S traditions were \u201cforced<\/span> underground.\u201d<\/span>15 <\/span>This eventually led to high rates of isolation, dishonouring, suicide, and<\/span> violence against Two-Spirit community members which continues today.<\/span>16 <\/span>The hurtful impact<\/span> of residential schools is ongoing for 2S individuals as a result of deeply-rooted<\/span> intergenerational trauma. Each Indigenous society had its own distinct language and ways to<\/span> acknowledge those who exist beyond the European binary impositions of gender, sexuality and<\/span> Christian religious moralities,<\/span>17 <\/span>yet these 2S traditions were routinely silenced, repressed, and<\/span> avoided for the safety of relatives during these processes of colonization. Because of the gaps<\/span> in cultural tradition, some Indigenous societies today question if it was the European<\/span> colonizers who brought sexual and gender deviance to the First Nations.<\/span>18 <\/span>2S traditions seem to<\/span> b<\/span>e lost in colonial translation.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Trauma As A Form of Prevailing Colonization<\/b> <\/b><\/p>\n

             2S experiences are effectively \u201cquarantined\u201d<\/span>19<\/span>in the sense that 2S youth are stuck between a<\/span> rock and a hard place where few mentors are available to support them. They are extremely<\/span> vulnerable individuals who often lack community that might support their 2S identity. In<\/span> addition to their alienation, the intersectional effect of racialization and gender intensifies the <\/span>consequences of colonization on Indigenous women and 2S people specifically. Many 2S<\/span> individuals leave their home communities in search of belonging in city centres, only to<\/span> experience further racism, exclusion, and rejection by non-Indigenous settlers. This is<\/span> especially the case for those who fail to fit into the standards of heteropatriarchy and<\/span> homonormativity.<\/span>20<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

             Though there is a resurgence in 2S reclamation and organizations working specifically for 2S<\/span> individuals, there is also an abundance of discrimination and violence that remains living and<\/span> active. The 2009 documentary, <\/span>Two Spirits<\/span><\/i>, tells the true story of Fred Martinez, a boy who<\/span> was also a girl (we might classify him as 2S but he did not identify specifically with that<\/span> term), who was brutally murdered at the age of sixteen. The film recounts the grief of a<\/span> mother\u2019s loss as she unpacks Fred\u2019s growing up, his fluid gender presentation and identity,<\/span> and his relation to the Navajo tradition. Fred Martinez identified himself as gay and <\/span>nadleehi<\/span><\/i> (one of four genders in the Navajo tradition, meaning feminine-man). He was known for not<\/span> wanting labels: he \u201cwanted to wake up in the morning and say \u201cwho am I going to be<\/span> today?\u201d<\/span>21<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Decolonizing, Reclaiming, Healing<\/b> <\/b><\/p>\n

             Recovering the traditional fluidity and inclusive meanings of 2S traditions is extremely<\/span> difficult and often an isolated process. Because of 2S individuals\u2019 intersectional position<\/span> b<\/span>etween Indigenous communities and Western LGBTQ+ groups, they face pushback and lack<\/span> of support from both groups. Add to the mix a healthy dose of intergenerational trauma and an<\/span> insistent feeling that one is not 2S enough, there is an incredibly tough path ahead for<\/span> Two-Spirit folks today who are on the path of decolonizing.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

             Often 2S folks are left to educate themselves for identity development and participation in<\/span> their own community and cultures. They are left to do their own healing work alone<\/span>22 <\/span>because<\/span> there is no one in their immediate family or western LGBTQ+ community to turn to. Often 2S<\/span> individuals do not desire to strain their Indigenous families with their 2S specific experiences<\/span> that include \u201cdismissal, disrespect, dishonouring, displacement.\u201d<\/span>23 <\/span>It should not be an<\/span> alienating burden for 2S individuals to traverse<\/span>.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

             Decolonizing and reclaiming Two-Spirit identity takes a village\u2013\u2013it involves breaking<\/span> unclarified silence around 2S traditions within Indigenous communities and intentional<\/span> unlearning (especially for knowledge-keepers and Elders).<\/span>24 <\/span>Successful decolonization demands<\/span> b<\/span>old creativity, re-education, and a return to nation-based knowledge systems and ways of<\/span> b<\/span>eing. Sparrow explains how \u201cthe very aspects of Indigenous cultures targeted by colonial<\/span> p<\/span>ersecution throughout history (which includes Indigenous identity, spirituality, family,<\/span> education, ceremony, cultural activities and values), will subsequently serve as viable sources<\/span> of resistance and resiliency for Two-Spirit People.\u201d<\/span>25 <\/span>For many communities, art is often a vital<\/span> element in reclaiming one\u2019s queerness and unique Indigeneity: it becomes a fruitful way for 2S<\/span> p<\/span>eople to share their identities, stories, and traditions with non-2S people.<\/span><\/p>\n

             Importantly, the path forward in decolonization must include the acknowledgment and<\/span> understanding of the history of colonization and its impact: for non-Indigenous folks to be<\/span> involved in this process, this is an absolutely critical step. For those who are helpers in<\/span> Indigenous communities, decolonizing involves being trauma-informed and \u201cplacing symptoms<\/span> of cultural genocide back into historic and contemporary context.\u201d<\/span>26 <\/span>In addressing Indigeneity,<\/span> mainstream LGBTQ+ communities should work to amplify Two-Spirit voices along with the<\/span> oppressive colonial histories that continue to engender marginalization and erasure of 2S<\/span> p<\/span>eoples.<\/span>27 <\/span>As more Two-Spirit organizations continue to raise global awareness, may Two-Spirit<\/span> p<\/span>ride return and healing continue.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

_<\/span>_______________________________________<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

B<\/span><\/i>elow are five Indigiqueer\/Two-Spirit figures that were included in our class<\/span><\/i> collaborative magazine:<\/span><\/i> <\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

We\u2019wha <\/b>is one of the most well-known Two-Spirit individuals; she was referred to as<\/span> lhaman\u2013\u2013<\/span><\/i>\u201cmixed gender\u201d\u2013\u2013in the Zuni language and was a remarkable fiber artist, weaver,<\/span> p<\/span>otter, and cultural ambassador in the nineteenth century.<\/span>28<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Ozaawindib <\/b>was an Ojibwe warrior who had several husbands in the early nineteenth century.<\/span> Ozaawindib was described by settlers \u201chis man was one of those who make themselves women,<\/span> and are called women by the Indians.\u201d<\/span>29<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Ka\u00faxuma N\u00fapika <\/b>was a Kutenai warrior, cultural intermediary, healer, and prophet in the early<\/span> nineteenth century. She was documented by European settlers as a \u201cManlike Woman\u201d with a<\/span> wife.<\/span>30<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Fred Martinez <\/b>was a young <\/span>n\u00e1dleeh\u00ed<\/span><\/i>\u2013\u2013a male-bodied person with a feminine nature who was<\/span> thought to possess a special gift\u2013\u2013of Navajo ancestry. At the age of sixteen in 2001, he was<\/span> b<\/span>rutally murdered and became one of the youngest hate-crime victims in modern history.<\/span>31<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Ilona Verley <\/b>is a Two-Spirit Nlaka’pamux trans woman who recently competed on the first<\/span> season of Canada’s Drag Race. She became the first Indigenous, Two-Spirit, and openly<\/span> non-binary queen to compete in the show.<\/span>32<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Notes & Citations<\/b> <\/b><\/p>\n

1 Bitty. reclamation!. <\/span>The Peak Magazine<\/span><\/i>, 55, no. 1 (2015): 29.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

2 Michelle Filice, \u201cTwo-Spirit.\u201d <\/span>The Canadian Encyclopedia<\/span><\/i>.<\/span> Accessed November 5, 2020. <\/span>https:\/\/www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca\/en\/article\/Two-Spirit.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

3 Corrina Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between: Coast Salish Two<\/span> <\/span>Spirit Identities and Experiences\u201d (PhD diss., University of Victoria,<\/span> <\/span>2018), 29.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

4 <\/span>Two Spirits<\/span><\/i>. Film. USA, 2009.<\/span><\/p>\n

5 <\/span>Two Spirits<\/span><\/i>. 2009.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

6 Filice. \u201cTwo-Spirit.\u201d<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

7 Filice. \u201cTwo-Spirit.\u201d<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

8 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 30.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

9 Kylan Mattias de Vries, \u201cBerdache.\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, inc. Accessed November 5, 2020.<\/span> https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/berdache.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

10 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 15.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

11 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 14.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

12 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 15.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

13 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 17.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

14 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 18.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

15 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 19.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

16 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 19.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

17 Sparrow, Reclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 6.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

18 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 11.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

19 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 32.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

20 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 33.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

21 <\/span>Two Spirits<\/span><\/i>. Film. USA, 2009.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

22 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 91.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

23 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 94.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

24 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 102.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

25 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 38.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

26 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 23.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

27 Sparrow, \u201cReclaiming Spaces Between,\u201d 37.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

28 \u201cWe’wha.\u201d Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, last modified October 23, 2020. https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/We’wha.<\/span> 29 \u201cOzaawindib.\u201d Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, last modified October 20, 2020.<\/span> <\/span>https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozaawindib.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

30 \u201cKa\u00faxuma N\u00fapika.\u201d Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, last modified September 5, 2020. <\/span>https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ka%C3%BAxuma_N%C3%BApika.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

31 <\/span>Two Spirits<\/span><\/i>. Film. USA, 2009.<\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

32 \u201cIlona Verley.\u201d Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, last modified November 20, 2020. <\/span>https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ilona_Verley.<\/span><\/p>\n



<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

400 Level Entry<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":123,"featured_media":6650,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[41],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-6649","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-2021-winners"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/pad6JM-1Jf","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/6649","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/123"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=6649"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/6649\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6947,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/6649\/revisions\/6947"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6649"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=6649"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/create.twu.ca\/learningcommons\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=6649"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}